Aldehydes & Ketones: The Carbonyl Powerhouses

The Hook: From Formaldehyde Preservatives to Acetone Nail Polish

The Core Concept: The Carbonyl Group (C=O)

General Structure

Aldehydes:

Ketones:

In simple terms:

• Aldehyde: Carbonyl group (C=O) at terminal position (end of chain), with at least one H on carbonyl carbon
• Ketone: Carbonyl group (C=O) within the chain, with two carbon groups (no H on carbonyl carbon)

Key Difference:

Memory Trick: “Aldehyde is At the end, Ketone is Kaught in the middle!”

Interactive Demo: Visualize Nucleophilic Addition

Watch nucleophilic addition reactions to the carbonyl group step-by-step.

Nomenclature

IUPAC System:

Suffix:

• Aldehydes: -al
• Ketones: -one

Numbering:

• Aldehydes: C=O is always position 1 (no need to mention)
• Ketones: Number to give C=O lowest number

Why is C=O Special? The Reactivity Story

Polarity of Carbonyl Group

    δ+  δ-
    C=O

Reason: Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon

• Pulls electrons toward itself
• Makes C electron-deficient (δ+) → electrophilic center
• Makes O electron-rich (δ-) → nucleophilic center (but C is more important!)

Result: Nucleophilic addition is the characteristic reaction!

Nucleophilic Addition Mechanism (General)

       δ+  δ-              OH
       |   |               |
Nu⁻ + R-C=O  →   R-C-Nu
       |                   |
       H (aldehyde)        H
     or R' (ketone)      or R'

Steps:

Step 1: Nucleophilic attack on electrophilic carbon
          δ-
Nu⁻  →   C=O   →   C-O⁻
                    |
                   Nu

Step 2: Protonation of alkoxide
C-O⁻ + H⁺  →  C-OH
|              |
Nu            Nu

Why aldehydes are MORE reactive than ketones:

1. Steric hindrance:

   • Aldehydes: Only 1 R group + 1 H → less crowded → nucleophile attacks easily
   • Ketones: 2 R groups → more crowded → nucleophile approach hindered

2. Electronic effect (+I effect):

   • Aldehydes: 1 R group → less electron donation to C=O → C remains electrophilic
   • Ketones: 2 R groups → more +I effect → C becomes less electrophilic

Memory Trick: “Aldehydes are Available (less hindered), Ketones are Krowded (more hindered)!”

Preparation of Aldehydes & Ketones

Method 1: Oxidation of Alcohols (Most Important!)

Pattern:

Examples:

(a) 1° Alcohol → Aldehyde (using PCC):

       PCC/CH₂Cl₂               O
       (anhydrous)              ‖
CH₃CH₂-CH₂-OH  ──────────→  CH₃CH₂-C-H
                            (Propanal)

PCC = Pyridinium Chlorochromate: Mild oxidizing agent, stops at aldehyde stage!

(b) 2° Alcohol → Ketone:

       K₂Cr₂O₇/H⁺              O
                               ‖
CH₃-CH(OH)-CH₃  ──────────→  CH₃-C-CH₃
(Propan-2-ol)                (Propanone/Acetone)

Memory Trick:

• “PCC is Perfect for Preserving aldehydes (stops oxidation)!”
• “2° alcohol → 2nd oxygen product (ketone)”

Method 2: Ozonolysis of Alkenes

Reaction:

       (1) O₃
R-CH=CH-R'  ────────────→  R-CHO + R'-CHO
       (2) Zn/H₂O
           (reductive workup)

Example:

       (1) O₃
CH₃-CH=CH₂  ────────────→  CH₃-CHO + HCHO
       (2) Zn/H₂O       (Acetaldehyde) (Formaldehyde)

Mechanism (Simplified):

Step 1: Ozone addition to C=C (forms ozonide)
R-CH=CH-R' + O₃  →  R-CH-O-O-CH-R'
                      |     |
                      O-----O
                   (Ozonide, unstable)

Step 2: Reductive cleavage
Ozonide + Zn/H₂O  →  R-CHO + R'-CHO

Product Prediction:

• Break C=C bond
• Add C=O to each carbon that was part of C=C

JEE Pattern: Given ozonolysis products, deduce the original alkene structure!

Method 3: Hydration of Alkynes (for Ketones)

Reaction:

       H₂O, H₂SO₄
R-C≡C-H  ────────────→  R-CO-CH₃
       HgSO₄          (Methyl ketone)

Example:

       H₂O, H₂SO₄
CH₃-C≡C-H  ────────────→  CH₃-CO-CH₃
          HgSO₄          (Acetone)

Mechanism:

Step 1: Markovnikov addition (forms enol)
       H₂O, H⁺              OH
CH₃-C≡CH  ──────→  CH₃-C=CH₂  (Enol, unstable!)
        HgSO₄

Step 2: Tautomerization (keto-enol)
      OH                    O
      |                     ‖
CH₃-C=CH₂  ⇌  CH₃-C-CH₃  (Keto form, stable)
   (Enol)      (Ketone)

Note: Enols are generally unstable and tautomerize to more stable keto form!

Memory Trick: “Enols are Evanescent (short-lived), Keto is Konstant (stable)!”

Method 4: Friedel-Crafts Acylation (for Aromatic Ketones)

Reaction:

         RCOCl
C₆H₆ + ────────→  C₆H₅-CO-R
        AlCl₃      (Aromatic ketone)

Example:

         CH₃COCl
C₆H₆ + ─────────→  C₆H₅-CO-CH₃  (Acetophenone)
        AlCl₃

Cannot make aldehydes this way! (C₆H₅-CHO requires special reagent: Gattermann-Koch)

Method 5: From Nitriles and Acyl Chlorides (Advanced)

Rosenmund Reduction (Acyl chloride → Aldehyde):

       H₂/Pd-BaSO₄                O
       (poisoned catalyst)        ‖
R-COCl  ────────────────→  R-C-H
                          (Aldehyde)

Example:

       H₂/Pd-BaSO₄
CH₃COCl  ──────────→  CH₃CHO
                     (Acetaldehyde)

Why poisoned catalyst? Prevents over-reduction to alcohol!

Reactions of Aldehydes & Ketones: The Main Arsenal

Reaction 1: Nucleophilic Addition - Addition of HCN

Reaction:

       HCN               OH
       |                 |
R-C=O  →  R-C-CN  (Cyanohydrin)
       |                 |
       H (aldehyde)      H
     or R' (ketone)    or R'

Example:

       HCN              OH
CH₃CHO  →  CH₃-CH-CN  (2-Hydroxypropanenitrile)

Mechanism:

Step 1: Nucleophilic attack by CN⁻ (from HCN ⇌ H⁺ + CN⁻)
         δ-
CN⁻  →  C=O  →  C-O⁻
                |
               CN

Step 2: Protonation
C-O⁻ + H⁺  →  C-OH
|              |
CN            CN

Importance: Cyanohydrins are useful intermediates!

• Hydrolysis: R-CH(OH)-CN → R-CH(OH)-COOH (α-hydroxy acid)
• Reduction: R-CH(OH)-CN → R-CH(OH)-CH₂-NH₂ (β-amino alcohol)

Reaction 2: Nucleophilic Addition - Addition of NaHSO₃

Reaction:

       NaHSO₃            OH
       |                 |
R-CHO  →  R-CH-SO₃Na  (Bisulfite adduct, white crystalline solid!)

Example:

         NaHSO₃              OH
CH₃CHO  ────────→  CH₃-CH-SO₃Na
                  (White precipitate)

Uses:

• Purification of aldehydes/ketones (crystalline solid easy to isolate)
• Qualitative test for aldehydes and methyl ketones (white ppt)

Note: Only works well with aldehydes and methyl ketones (sterically less hindered)!

Reverse Reaction (regenerate carbonyl):

R-CH(OH)-SO₃Na  + HCl or Na₂CO₃  →  R-CHO + NaHSO₃

Reaction 3: Nucleophilic Addition - Addition of Grignard Reagent

Pattern:

Example 1:

         (1) CH₃MgBr
HCHO  ──────────────→  CH₃CH₂OH
         (2) H₃O⁺      (1° alcohol)

Example 2:

         (1) CH₃MgBr
CH₃CHO  ──────────────→  (CH₃)₂CHOH
         (2) H₃O⁺       (2° alcohol)

Example 3:

           (1) CH₃MgBr
CH₃COCH₃  ──────────────→  (CH₃)₃COH
           (2) H₃O⁺       (3° alcohol)

Mechanism:

Step 1: Nucleophilic attack by R⁻ (from RMgX)
         δ-                  O⁻MgX
R⁻  →   C=O   →   R-C-R'
                   |
                   H (or R")

Step 2: Hydrolysis (acidic workup)
         O⁻MgX                OH
         |          H₃O⁺      |
R-C-R'  ───────→  R-C-R'
         |                    |
         H (or R")           H (or R")

JEE Pattern: Given alcohol, find Grignard + carbonyl combination (work backward!)

Reaction 4: Nucleophilic Addition - Addition of NH₃ Derivatives

General Pattern:

       H₂N-G              N-G
       |                  ‖
R-C=O  →  R-C + H₂O
       |                  |
       H (or R')          H (or R')

Table of Derivatives:

Mechanism (for oxime formation):

Step 1: Nucleophilic attack
         δ-                    OH
NH₂OH →  C=O   →   C-NH₂OH
                    |

Step 2: Proton transfer + water elimination
C-NH₂OH  →  C=N-OH + H₂O
|           |
           (Oxime)

Importance:

• Identification/characterization of aldehydes/ketones (crystalline derivatives)
• 2,4-DNP test (2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine) → orange/red precipitate (qualitative test!)

       2,4-DNP
R-CHO  ────────→  R-CH=N-NH-C₆H₃(NO₂)₂
                 (Orange/yellow/red precipitate)

Reaction 5: Aldol Condensation (α-H Required!)

Condition: Aldehyde or ketone must have α-hydrogen (H on carbon next to C=O)

Reaction (Self-condensation):

         dil. NaOH                OH              -H₂O
2 CH₃CHO  ─────────→  CH₃-CH-CH₂-CHO  ────────→  CH₃-CH=CH-CHO
         (or dil. KOH)    |                      (Crotonaldehyde,
                         CH₃                      α,β-unsaturated aldehyde)
                      (Aldol, 3-hydroxybutanal)

Mechanism:

Step 1: Enolate formation (α-H removed by OH⁻)
       H    O                    O⁻
       |    ‖         OH⁻        ‖
CH₃-C-C-H  ────────→  CH₂=C-H  (Enolate ion, resonance stabilized)
       |
       H

Step 2: Nucleophilic attack on another aldehyde
       O⁻                         O
       ‖                          ‖
CH₂=C-H + CH₃-CHO  →  CH₃-CH-CH₂-C-H
                       |           |
                      O⁻          H

Step 3: Protonation
                              OH    O
                              |     ‖
                      CH₃-CH-CH₂-C-H  (Aldol)

Step 4: Dehydration (heating)
OH    O                        O
|     ‖           Heat         ‖
CH₃-CH-CH₂-CHO  ───────→  CH₃-CH=CH-CHO + H₂O

Key Points:

• Aldol = Aldehyde + Alcohol (β-hydroxy aldehyde/ketone)
• Dehydration → α,β-unsaturated carbonyl (conjugated system)
• Requires α-H (no α-H → no aldol condensation!)

JEE Pattern:

• Formaldehyde (HCHO) has α-H? NO (no carbon next to C=O!) → no aldol
• Acetaldehyde (CH₃CHO) has α-H? YES (CH₃ has H!) → aldol ✓
• Benzaldehyde (C₆H₅CHO) has α-H? NO (C₆H₅ is benzene, no α-H!) → no aldol

Memory Trick: “Aldol needs α-hydrogen - A for α!”

Reaction 6: Cannizzaro Reaction (No α-H!)

Condition: Aldehyde with NO α-hydrogen + concentrated NaOH

Reaction (Disproportionation):

         conc. NaOH
2 HCHO  ───────────→  CH₃OH + HCOONa
                     (Methanol) (Sodium formate)

2 C₆H₅CHO  ────conc. NaOH────→  C₆H₅CH₂OH + C₆H₅COONa
                               (Benzyl alcohol) (Sodium benzoate)

Mechanism:

Step 1: Nucleophilic attack by OH⁻ on one aldehyde
       OH⁻                   O⁻
       |                     |
  →   C=O  →   HO-C-H
       |                     |
       H                     H

Step 2: Hydride transfer to another aldehyde
       O⁻                              O⁻
       |                               |
HO-C-H + C=O  →  HO-C⁺ + HC-O⁻  →  HCOO⁻ + H-C-OH
       |         |           |                    |
       H         H           H                    H

Net Result: One aldehyde oxidized to carboxylate, other reduced to alcohol!

Cannizzaro vs Aldol:

Memory Trick: “Cannizzaro Craves Concentrated base, aldol likes dilute!”

Reaction 7: Oxidation

Aldehydes (Easy to Oxidize):

Ketones:

• Do NOT get oxidized under normal conditions (no H on C=O carbon!)
• Very harsh conditions → C-C bond breaks (destructive)

Tollens’ Test (The Silver Mirror Test):

       [Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺ + OH⁻
R-CHO  ────────────────────→  R-COO⁻ + Ag↓ + H₂O
                              (Silver mirror on test tube wall!)

Observation: Shiny silver mirror on inside of test tube

Fehling’s Test:

       Fehling's A + B
R-CHO  ────────────────→  R-COO⁻ + Cu₂O↓ (Red precipitate)
       (heat)

Observation: Blue solution → Red precipitate (Cu²⁺ → Cu₂O)

Reaction 8: Reduction

Reagents:

• LiAlH₄ (powerful reducer)
• NaBH₄ (milder reducer)
• H₂/Ni (catalytic hydrogenation)

Reaction:

       LiAlH₄ or NaBH₄        OH
       |                      |
R-C=O  →  R-C-H
       |                      |
       H (aldehyde)           H (1° alcohol)

       LiAlH₄ or NaBH₄        OH
       |                      |
R-C=O  →  R-C-R'
       |                      |
       R' (ketone)            R' (2° alcohol)

Examples:

       LiAlH₄
CH₃CHO  ──────→  CH₃CH₂OH  (Ethanol, 1° alcohol)

         LiAlH₄
CH₃COCH₃  ──────→  (CH₃)₂CHOH  (Isopropanol, 2° alcohol)

Mechanism (simplified):

Step 1: Hydride (H⁻) attack from LiAlH₄
         δ-                  O⁻
H⁻  →   C=O   →   H-C-R
                   |

Step 2: Protonation
         O⁻                   OH
H-C-R + H₃O⁺  →  H-C-R
         |                    |

Reaction 9: Clemmensen Reduction (C=O → CH₂)

Reagent: Zn-Hg / HCl

Reaction:

       Zn-Hg/HCl
R-CO-R'  ────────→  R-CH₂-R'  (Complete reduction to alkane!)

Example:

         Zn-Hg/HCl
C₆H₅-CO-CH₃  ──────────→  C₆H₅-CH₂-CH₃
(Acetophenone)           (Ethylbenzene)

Use: Convert carbonyl to methylene (CH₂) group

Alternative: Wolff-Kishner reduction (NH₂-NH₂, KOH, heat) - same result, basic conditions

Reaction 10: Haloform Reaction (Methyl Ketones Only!)

Condition: Methyl ketone (R-CO-CH₃) + I₂/NaOH or Cl₂/NaOH or Br₂/NaOH

Reaction:

         I₂/NaOH
R-CO-CH₃  ──────────→  R-COO⁻Na⁺ + CHI₃↓
                      (Sodium carboxylate) (Iodoform, yellow ppt!)

Example:

           I₂/NaOH
CH₃-CO-CH₃  ──────────→  CH₃COO⁻Na⁺ + CHI₃↓
                        (Sodium acetate) (Iodoform, yellow ppt)

Mechanism:

Step 1: Halogenation of α-carbons (all 3 H replaced)
CH₃-CO-R + 3I₂ + 3OH⁻  →  CI₃-CO-R + 3I⁻ + 3H₂O

Step 2: Nucleophilic attack by OH⁻ (cleavage)
         O⁻OH
         |
CI₃-C-R  →  R-COO⁻ + CI₃⁻
         |
         O

Step 3: Protonation of CI₃⁻
CI₃⁻ + H₂O  →  CHI₃↓ + OH⁻
             (Yellow precipitate!)

Observation: Yellow precipitate of iodoform (CHI₃)

Works with:

• Methyl ketones: R-CO-CH₃ ✓
• Acetaldehyde: CH₃-CHO ✓ (only aldehyde that works!)
• Ethanol: CH₃-CH₂-OH ✓ (oxidizes to CH₃CHO first, then haloform)

JEE Pattern: Iodoform test distinguishes methyl ketones from other ketones!

    O                     OH
    ‖                     |
R-C-CH₃  OR  CH₃-C-H  OR  CH₃-C-H
                          |
                          R
(Methyl ketone) (Acetaldehyde) (2° alcohol with CH₃-CHOH-)

Special Reactions: Cross-Aldol and Mixed Cannizzaro

Cross-Aldol Condensation

Problem: Mixing two different aldehydes/ketones gives mixture of 4 products!

Solution: Use one component without α-H (can’t form enolate, only acts as electrophile)

Example:

         dil. NaOH
C₆H₅CHO + CH₃CHO  ──────────→  C₆H₅-CH=CH-CHO
(No α-H)  (Has α-H)           (Cinnamaldehyde)

Strategy:

• Aromatic aldehyde (no α-H) → electrophile only
• Aliphatic aldehyde (has α-H) → forms enolate, attacks aromatic aldehyde

Cross-Cannizzaro Reaction

Reaction:

         conc. NaOH
HCHO + C₆H₅CHO  ───────────→  CH₃OH + C₆H₅COO⁻Na⁺

Pattern: HCHO is better hydride donor → gets oxidized preferentially

Result: HCHO → CH₃OH (reduced), C₆H₅CHO → C₆H₅COO⁻ (oxidized)

Memory Tricks & Patterns

The Master Mnemonic: “CARBONYL REACTIONS DOMINATE CHEMISTRY”

• Cyanohydrin (HCN addition)

• Aldol (needs α-H, dilute base)

• Reduction (LiAlH₄ → alcohol)

• Bisulfite (NaHSO₃ addition, white ppt)

• Oxidation (aldehydes only! Tollens, Fehling)

• NH₃ derivatives (oxime, hydrazone, semicarbazone)

• Yellow ppt (Iodoform test for methyl ketones)

• LiAlH₄ (powerful reducer, reduces everything)

• Rosenmund (acyl chloride → aldehyde)

• Electrophilic C (δ+ carbon in C=O)

• Aldehydes more reactive than ketones

• Clemmensen (C=O → CH₂, Zn-Hg/HCl)

• Tollens’ test (silver mirror for aldehydes)

• Iodoform (methyl ketones, yellow ppt)

• Ozonolysis (alkene → aldehydes/ketones)

• Nucleophilic addition (characteristic reaction)

• Semicarbazone (crystalline derivative)

• DNPH test (2,4-DNP, orange ppt for C=O)

• Oxime (NH₂OH addition product)

• Methyl ketones (Iodoform positive)

• Increase in carbon (Grignard addition)

• No α-H → Cannizzaro (conc. NaOH)

• Aldehyde has terminal C=O

• Tautomerization (enol ⇌ keto)

• Electrophilic aromatic substitution (deactivating C=O)

• Cannizzaro (no α-H, conc. NaOH, disproportionation)

• HCN (cyanohydrin, useful intermediate)

• Enolate (α-H removal in aldol)

• Mechanism (nucleophilic addition, not substitution!)

• Isotopes (α, β positions relative to C=O)

• Steric hindrance (aldehydes < ketones)

• Terminal C=O (aldehyde), internal C=O (ketone)

• Reactivity (aldehyde > ketone)

• Yield (PCC stops at aldehyde, K₂Cr₂O₇ goes to acid)

Quick Reaction Summary

Nucleophilic Addition:

• HCN → Cyanohydrin
• NaHSO₃ → Bisulfite adduct (white ppt)
• RMgX → Alcohol (after H₃O⁺)
• NH₂OH → Oxime
• NH₂-NH₂ → Hydrazone
• NH₂-NH-C₆H₅ → Phenylhydrazone

Condensation Reactions:

• Aldol: α-H + dilute base → β-hydroxy carbonyl → α,β-unsaturated
• Cannizzaro: No α-H + conc. base → alcohol + carboxylate

Oxidation/Reduction:

• Oxidation: Aldehyde → Carboxylic acid (Tollens, Fehling, K₂Cr₂O₇)
• Reduction: Aldehyde/Ketone → Alcohol (LiAlH₄, NaBH₄)
• Clemmensen: C=O → CH₂ (Zn-Hg/HCl)

Special Tests:

• Tollens’: Aldehyde → Silver mirror
• Fehling’s: Aldehyde → Red Cu₂O ppt
• 2,4-DNP: Aldehyde/Ketone → Orange ppt
• Iodoform: Methyl ketone → Yellow CHI₃ ppt

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1° Alcohol + PCC  →  Aldehyde (stops!)
1° Alcohol + K₂Cr₂O₇/H⁺  →  Carboxylic acid (continues!)

Practice Problems

Level 1: Foundation (NCERT Style)

    δ+  δ-
    C=O

(a) CH₃CHO + HCN → ?
(b) CH₃COCH₃ + NaHSO₃ → ?

       HCN              OH
CH₃CHO  →  CH₃-CH-CN
          (2-Hydroxypropanenitrile, acetaldehyde cyanohydrin)

         NaHSO₃              OH
CH₃COCH₃  ────────→  (CH₃)₂C-SO₃Na
                    (White crystalline solid)

Level 2: JEE Main Style

         dil. NaOH                OH    O
2 CH₃CHO  ─────────→  CH₃-CH-CH₂-C-H
                       |           |
                      CH₃          H
                  (3-Hydroxybutanal, "Aldol")

       Heat              O
A  ─────────→  CH₃-CH=CH-C-H + H₂O
              (Crotonaldehyde, but-2-enal)

Level 3: JEE Advanced Style

         2,4-DNP
CH₃-CO-CH₃  ────────→  (CH₃)₂C=N-NH-C₆H₃(NO₂)₂
                      (Orange/yellow precipitate)

CH₃-CO-CH₃ + Tollens' reagent  →  No reaction (ketone doesn't oxidize!)

           I₂/NaOH
CH₃-CO-CH₃  ──────────→  CH₃COO⁻Na⁺ + CHI₃↓
                        (B, Sodium acetate) (Yellow ppt)

CH₃-CO-CH₂-CH₃ + Fehling's solution  →  No reaction (ketone!)

              I₂/NaOH
CH₃-CO-CH₂-CH₃  ──────────→  CH₃CH₂COO⁻Na⁺ + CHI₃↓
                            (Sodium propanoate) (Yellow ppt)

                LiAlH₄              OH
CH₃-CO-CH₂-CH₃  ──────────→  CH₃-CH-CH₂-CH₃
                            (Butan-2-ol, Y)

       CH₃COCl/AlCl₃
C₆H₆  ─────────────────→  C₆H₅-CO-CH₃
                         (Acetophenone)

       PCC/CH₂Cl₂                O
       or CuO/573 K              ‖
CH₃CH₂-OH  ─────────────→  CH₃-C-H
                          (Acetaldehyde)

Step 1: Hydration (Markovnikov)
       H₂SO₄/H₂O
CH₃-CH=CH₂  ────────────→  CH₃-CH(OH)-CH₃
                          (Isopropanol, 2° alcohol)

Step 2: Oxidation
         K₂Cr₂O₇/H⁺               O
CH₃-CH(OH)-CH₃  ──────────→  CH₃-C-CH₃
                             (Propanone/Acetone)

       PdCl₂/CuCl₂              O
       O₂, H₂O                  ‖
CH₃-CH=CH₂  ─────────────→  CH₃-C-CH₃
                            (Direct oxidation to ketone!)

C₆H₅-CH=CH-CHO (Cinnamaldehyde)

This is dehydration product of:
        OH
        |
C₆H₅-CH-CH₂-CHO (aldol adduct)

C₆H₅-CHO + CH₃-CHO  ──dil. NaOH──→  C₆H₅-CH(OH)-CH₂-CHO
(No α-H)   (Has α-H)
   (A)         (B)

Then dehydration:
C₆H₅-CH(OH)-CH₂-CHO  ──Heat──→  C₆H₅-CH=CH-CHO + H₂O

Quick Revision Box

Connection to Other Topics

Prerequisites (Review these first):

• Alcohols - oxidation to aldehydes/ketones, Grignard products
• Organic Principles: Nucleophilic Addition - mechanism understanding
• Hydrocarbons: Alkenes - ozonolysis to aldehydes/ketones

Related Topics:

• Carboxylic Acids - oxidation product of aldehydes
• Phenols - Reimer-Tiemann gives aldehydes
• Ethers - comparison of C-O functional groups
• Nitrogen Compounds: Amines - derivatives (imines, enamines)

Advanced Applications:

• Aldol condensation in synthesis (carbon-carbon bond formation)
• Grignard reactions (alcohols of any degree)
• Protecting groups (acetals/ketals)
• Natural products containing carbonyl groups

Teacher’s Summary

Previous Topic: ← Ethers - The unreactive oxygen bridge Next Topic: Carboxylic Acids → - The acidic oxidation products!